Microsoft PowerPoint – Week2.pptx
2022‐09‐14
Copyright By PowCoder代写加微信 assignmentchef
Ch 1: Starting Out
Ch 2: Believe the Type
University of the Fraser Valley
COMP 481: Functional and Logic Programming
Terminology
• referential transparency—guarantees a function returns the
same result when called with the same parameter values
• lazy—Haskell will not calculate values until necessary
(allows you to make seemingly infinite data structures)
• statically typed—all things are determined at compile time
• type inference—can let Haskell determine what type something
belongs to, but can still state the type of something if you want
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—Math Operations —
Typical addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
• floating point division /
• integer division, e.g.:
div 10 4 evaluates to 2 and not 2.5
• 12 mod 7
• True && False
• True || False
• not True
Comparison
• “hello” == “hello”
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Take a moment to read the error message when attempting to sum
two values of different types, e.g.: 5 + “llama”.
• the operations written between two values (such as *):
• are considered functions with two parameters
• are described as “inline” when written in between its arguments
• can be written in prefix style, i.e.: (*) 2 3 evaluates to 6
A few different kinds of functions:
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List functions:
• replicate
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List Creation
with Ranges
• [2,4..20]
• [20,19..1]
• take 24 [13,26..]
• take 10 (cycle [1,2,3])
• take 12 (cycle “LOL “)
• take 10 (repeat 5)
• replicate 3 10
• watch out with using ranges and floating‐point accuracy
• [0.1, 0.3 .. 1]
Comprehensions
• [2*x | x <- [1..10]]• you can add predicates after a comma, and have as many predicates as you want to filter your list• [2*x | x <- [1..10], odd x]• you can have multiple variables, each assigned with a list, so the result is like a cross product• [x*y | x <- [3, 5], y <- [2, 4, 6]]• can involve more complex expressions• boombangs xs =[if x < 10 then “BOOM!” else “BANG!” | x <- xs, odd x]2022‐09‐14List Access• use `!!` to access one element using an index• [1, 2, 3] !! 0• again, strings are also lists of characters:• “hello” !! 4We can also have lists inside of lists:• [ [1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9] ]— Tuples —2022‐09‐14Tuple Types• different numbers of elements are treated as distinct types• so, a 2‐tuple is considered different type from a 3‐tuple• for tuples with different types in corresponding elements are altogether different types as well• e.g.: (1, ‘a’) different type from (‘a’, 1)• can compare elements of the same type• cannot compare tuples of different lengths• fst returns the first element in a pair• snd returns the second element in a pair• the above only work on 2‐tuples• zip function takes two input lists and creates a list of tuples with corresponding values from the input lists• zip [1..] [“apple”, “orange”, “cherry”, “mango”]2022‐09‐14— Chapter 2 —It is just easier to use multiline statements in ghci than to write scripts in files for examples that are only a few lines at a time• use :{:} for multiline• use :set +m for multiline without bracesDifferent multiline has different ways to exit:• for a mistake with :{ just close with :} and start over• for a let multiline, to exit just press ENTER twiceWithout multiline braces, code must follow layout syntax:• mostly, just indent the next line to the same columnas the variable name on its previous line• this is only for some expressions that can span multiple lines2022‐09‐14Tuple TypesEvery thing in Haskell has a type determined at compile • you do not need to explicitly declare typesif there is enough other information for Haskell• :: reads as “has type of”• e.g.: (True, ‘a’) :: (Bool, Char)• :t lets us check the type of whatever follows the command• `Int`—bounded by min and max values• depending on your architecture, for a 64‐bit CPU,likely the bounds are ‐263 and 263• `Integer`—unbounded, but less efficient than `Int`• `Float`—real numbers to single floating‐point precision• `Double`—real numbers to double floating‐point precision• `Bool`—only the two expected values `True` or `False`• `Char`—a single Unicode character• `[Char]` is the same type as the `String` type• we saw tuples—their types also depend on their length• note that an empty tuple is also a type `()`• tuples can have at most 62 elements, but theoretically there are an infinite number of types2022‐09‐14The type of a function could involve lists, but lists themselves could contain some arbitrary type:• so, the declaration will involve a placeholder for the element type, such as `a`• e.g.: :t head;head :: [a] -> a
• e.g.: :t fst; fst :: (a, b) -> a
Note that the type of `fst` function describes the first
element in the pair `a` to have the same type as the
return value of the `fst` function.
Type Classes
For now, think of a type class as mostly the same concept as an
abstract interface in object‐oriented programming
• type class declares, but not an implementation for its functions
• any class belonging to the type class
will need to implement function behaviour
• equality is a good example of a function
that makes use of type classes in its pattern
• try `:t (==)`
• everything before the `=>` is called a class constraint
• any of the values in place of `a` must be of the `Eq` type class
• for our first example of a type class is `Eq`,
of which everything in Haskell is an instance
(except for input/output types)
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Eq & Classes
The `Eq` type class supports equality testing.
• so if a function has an `Eq` class constraint for one of its type
variables, then that function must implement BOTH
`==` and `/=` within its definition
• “definition” means the function’s statements of execution
The `Ord` type class is used by types that need arrange
their values in some order
• try `:t (>)`
• the `compare` function takes two input values both with type
an instance of `Ord`
• the return type is `Ordering`
• `Ordering` is a type with values `GT`, `LT`, `EQ`
All types we have seen so far except functions are
instances of the `Show` type class
• the `show` function will print its input as a string
The `Ord` type class is used by types that
need to arrange their values in some order
• try `:t (>)`
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Type Class
All types we have seen so far except functions are instances of the
Read type class as well.
• the read function (inverse of the show function)
• read takes a String type value as input and returns what value
would be expected when used in context
For example: `read “True” || False`
• the above context would expect a value of type `Bool` in place of
the `read “True”` expression
• `read “4”` will result in an error, because the expression is not
used in any context, so it does not know what type to expect
Annotations
Now we will need type annotations sometimes when we want to
specify the resulting type of an expression.
• append `::` with a corresponding type to the expression
• e.g.: `read “5” :: Int`
• e.g.: `(read “5” :: Float) * 4`
• we may avoid an annotation when Haskell can infer the type
• e.g.: `[read “True”, False, True]`
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The `Enum` type class describes any type that has values
which are totally ordered:
• the advantage is to be able to specify list ranges with `..`
• its `pred` function will return the value that directly precedes its
input value in the total order
• its `succ` function will return the next value directly after it
input value in the total order
Examples of types in this type class:
• (), Bool, Char, Ordering,
Int, Integer, Float, Double
• try the above in creating a few lists
Type Class
It is more helpful to look at an example function that
uses the `Bounded` type class:
• the `maxBound` function has an interesting type
• :t maxBound;maxBound :: Bounded a => a
• the textbook describes this kind of function as polymorphic constants
• i.e.: `maxBound` has no input parameters, but specifies the return type
• tuples with all element types as instances of `Bounded` are
altogether considered an instance of `Bounded` as well
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Type Class
Look at `:t 20`
• similar type as `maxBound`, but with type class `Num` instead
• so a value such as `20` is also a polymorphic constant
• “can act like any type that’s an instance of the `Num` type class”
• `Int, Integer, Float, Double`
Try `t: 20 :: Double`
• consider the multiplication operator `:t (*)`
• accepts two numbers and returns a number of the same type
• e.g.: `(5 :: Int) * (6 :: Integer)` will cause a type error
• e.g.: `5 * (6 :: Integer)` has no such error
• `5` can act like either an `Int` or an `Integer`,
but not both at once
• to be an instance of `Num`, a type must also be
an instance of `Show` and `Eq`
Type Class
• envelopes the `Float` and `Double` types
• examples of functions to try the type`:t` are
• `cos`, and
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Type Class
• envelopes the `Int` and `Integer` types
• only whole numbers
An example with more than one class constraint:
• :t fromIntegral
fromIntegral :: (Integral a, Num b) => a -> b
• returns a more general type for the same value
• you can use `fromIntegral` to smoothly combine expressions
that use mixed numeric types
• e.g.: `fromIntegral (length [1,2,3,4]) + 3.2`
Converting
Float Values
To convert a Floating instance value to an Integral one:
• floor 3.2
• ceiling 3.2
Just consider how these functions work with negative numbers:
• floor (-3.2)
• ceiling (-3.2)
Try with alternative notation to parentheses:
• floor $ -3.2
• ceiling $ -3.2
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— Finishing Up —
• because type classes are essentially abstract interfaces, a type
can be an instance of many different type classes
• sometimes a type must be an instance of one type class in order
to be an instance of another type class
• e.g.: an instance of `Ord` must first be an instance of `Eq`
• this makes sense from our experience in math
• comparing two things for ordering
• we should also be able to check whether two of those things are equal
• we call this implication between type classes a prerequisite
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Thank You!
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