Database Systems: A Practical Approach to Design, Implementation, and Management Sixth Edition
SQL: Data Definition
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Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
7.1 Data types supported by SQL standard.
7.2 Purpose of integrity enhancement feature of SQL.
7.3 How to define integrity constraints using SQL.
7.4 How to use the integrity enhancement feature in the CREATE and ALTER TABLE statements.
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Learning Objectives (2 of 2)
7.5 Purpose of views.
7.6 How to create and delete views using SQL. 7.7 How the DBMS performs operations on views. 7.8 Under what conditions views are updatable. 7.9 Advantages and disadvantages of views.
7.10 How the ISO transaction model works.
7.11 How to use the GRANT and REVOKE statements as a level of security.
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Table 7.1 ISO SQL Data Types
†BIT and BIT VARYING have been removed from the SQL:2003 standard.
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Integrity Enhancement Feature (1 of 4)
• Consider five types of integrity constraints: – required data
– domain constraints
– entity integrity
– referential integrity – general constraints.
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Integrity Enhancement Feature (2 of 4) Required Data
position VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL
Domain Constraints (a) CHECK
sex CHAR NOT NULL
CHECK (sex IN (‘M’, ‘F’))
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Integrity Enhancement Feature (3 of 4) (b) CREATE DOMAIN
CREATE DOMAIN DomainName [AS] dataType [DEFAULT defaultOption]
[CHECK (searchCondition)]
For example:
CREATE DOMAIN SexType AS CHAR CHECK (VALUE IN (‘M’, ‘F’));
sex SexType NOT NULL
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Integrity Enhancement Feature (4 of 4) • searchCondition can involve a table lookup:
CREATE DOMAIN BranchNo AS CHAR(4) CHECK (VALUE IN (SELECT branchNo
FROM Branch));
• Domains can be removed using DROP DOMAIN:
DROP DOMAIN DomainName [RESTRICT | CASCADE]
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IEF – Entity Integrity
• Primary key of a table must contain a unique, non-null value for each row.
• ISO standard supports FOREIGN KEY clause in CREATE and ALTER TABLE statements:
PRIMARY KEY(staffNo)
PRIMARY KEY(clientNo, propertyNo)
• Can only have one PRIMARY KEY clause per table. Can still ensure uniqueness for alternate keys using UNIQUE:
UNIQUE(telNo)
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IEF – Referential Integrity (1 of 4)
• FK is column or set of columns that links each row in child table containing foreign FK to row of parent table containing matching PK.
• Referential integrity means that, if FK contains a value, that value must refer to existing row in parent table.
• ISO standard supports definition of FKs with FOREIGN KEY clause in CREATE and ALTER TABLE:
FOREIGN KEY(branchNo) REFERENCES Branch
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IEF – Referential Integrity (2 of 4)
• Any INSERT/UPDATE attempting to create FK value in child table without matching CK value in parent is rejected.
• Action taken attempting to update/delete a CK value in parent table with matching rows in child is dependent on referential action specified using ON UPDATE and ON DELETE subclauses:
– CASCADE – SET NULL
– SET DEFAULT – NO ACTION
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IEF – Referential Integrity (3 of 4)
CASCADE: Delete row from parent and delete matching
rows in child, and so on in cascading manner.
SET NULL: Delete row from parent and set FK column(s) in child to NULL. Only valid if FK columns are NOT NULL.
SET DEFAULT: Delete row from parent and set each component of FK in child to specified default. Only valid if DEFAULT specified for FK columns.
NO ACTION: Reject delete from parent. Default.
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IEF – Referential Integrity (4 of 4)
FOREIGN KEY (staffNo) REFERENCES Staff ON DELETE SET NULL
FOREIGN KEY (ownerNo) REFERENCES Owner ON UPDATE CASCADE
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IEF – General Constraints (1 of 2)
• Could use CHECK/UNIQUE in CREATE and ALTER
• Similar to the CHECK clause, also have:
CREATE ASSERTION AssertionName CHECK (searchCondition)
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IEF – General Constraints (2 of 2)
CREATE ASSERTION StaffNotHandlingTooMuch CHECK (NOT EXISTS (SELECT staffNo
FROM PropertyForRent GROUP BY staffNo HAVING COUNT(*) > 100))
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Data Definition (1 of 2)
• SQL DDL allows database objects such as schemas, domains, tables, views, and indexes to be created and destroyed.
• Main SQL DDL statements are:
CREATE SCHEMA DROP SCHEMA
CREATE/ALTER DOMAIN DROP DOMAIN
CREATE/ALTER TABLE DROP TABLE
CREATE VIEW DROP VIEW
• Many DBMSs also provide: CREATE INDEX DROP INDEX
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Data Definition (2 of 2)
• Relations and other database objects exist in an
environment.
• Each environment contains one or more catalogs, and
each catalog consists of set of schemas.
• Schema is named collection of related database objects.
• Objects in a schema can be tables, views, domains, assertions, collations, translations, and character sets. All have same owner.
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CREATE SCHEMA
CREATE SCHEMA [Name | AUTHORIZATION CreatorId ]
DROP SCHEMA Name [RESTRICT | CASCADE]
• With RESTRICT (default), schema must be empty or operation fails.
• With CASCADE, operation cascades to drop all objects associated with schema in order defined above. If any of these operations fail, DROP SCHEMA fails.
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CREATE TABLE (1 of 2)
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CREATE TABLE (2 of 2)
• Creates a table with one or more columns of the specified
• With NOT NULL, system rejects any attempt to insert a
null in the column.
• Can specify a DEFAULT value for the column.
• Primary keys should always be specified as NOT NULL.
• FOREIGN KEY clause specifies FK along with the referential action.
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Example 7.1 – CREATE TABLE (1 of 2)
CREATE DOMAIN OwnerNumber AS VARCHAR(5)
CHECK (VALUE IN (SELECT ownerNo FROM PrivateOwner));
CREATE DOMAIN StaffNumber AS VARCHAR(5) CHECK (VALUE IN (SELECT staffNo FROM Staff));
CREATE DOMAIN PNumber AS VARCHAR(5); CREATE DOMAIN PRooms AS SMALLINT;
CHECK(VALUE BETWEEN 1 AND 15); CREATE DOMAIN PRent AS DECIMAL(6,2)
CHECK(VALUE BETWEEN 0 AND 9999.99);
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Example 7.1 – CREATE TABLE (2 of 2)
CREATE TABLE PropertyForRent ( propertyNo Pnumber NOT NULL, …. rooms PRooms NOT NULL DEFAULT 4, rent PRent NOT NULL, DEFAULT 600, ownerNo OwnerNumber NOT NULL, staffNo StaffNumber
Constraint StaffNotHandlingTooMuch …. branchNo BranchNumber NOT NULL, PRIMARY KEY (propertyNo),
FOREIGN KEY (staffNo) REFERENCES Staff
ON DELETE SET NULL ON UPDATE CASCADE ….);
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ALTER TABLE
• Add a new column to a table. • Drop a column from a table. • Add a new table constraint.
• Drop a table constraint.
• Set a default for a column.
• Drop a default for a column.
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Example 7.2(a) – ALTER TABLE
Change Staff table by removing default of ‘Assistant’ for position column and setting default for sex column to female (‘F’).
ALTER TABLE Staff
ALTER position DROP DEFAULT; ALTER TABLE Staff
ALTER sex SET DEFAULT ‘F’;
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Example 7.2(b) – ALTER TABLE
Remove constraint from PropertyForRent that staff are not allowed to handle more than 100 properties at a time. Add new column to Client table.
ALTER TABLE PropertyForRent
DROP CONSTRAINT StaffNotHandlingTooMuch;
ALTER TABLE Client
ADD prefNoRooms PRooms;
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DROP TABLE
DROP TABLE TableName [RESTRICT | CASCADE] e.g. DROP TABLE PropertyForRent;
• Removes named table and all rows within it.
• With RESTRICT, if any other objects depend for their existence on continued existence of this table, SQL does not allow request.
• With CASCADE, SQL drops all dependent objects (and objects dependent on these objects).
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Views (1 of 2) View
Dynamic result of one or more relational operations operating on base relations to produce another relation.
• Virtual relation that does not necessarily actually exist in the database but is produced upon request, at time of request.
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Views (2 of 2)
• Contents of a view are defined as a query on one or more
base relations.
• With view resolution, any operations on view are automatically translated into operations on relations from which it is derived.
• With view materialization, the view is stored as a temporary table, which is maintained as the underlying base tables are updated.
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SQL – CREATE VIEW (1 of 2)
CREATE VIEW ViewName [ (newColumnName [,…]) ] AS subselect
[WITH [CASCADED | LOCAL] CHECK OPTION]
• Can assign a name to each column in view.
• If list of column names is specified, it must have same number of items as number of columns produced by subselect.
• If omitted, each column takes name of corresponding column in subselect.
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SQL – CREATE VIEW (2 of 2)
• List must be specified if there is any ambiguity in a
column name.
• The subselect is known as the defining query.
• WITH CHECK OPTION ensures that if a row fails to satisfy WHERE clause of defining query, it is not added to underlying base table.
• Need SELECT privilege on all tables referenced in subselect and USAGE privilege on any domains used in referenced columns.
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Example 7.3 – Create Horizontal View
Create view so that manager at branch B003 can only see details for staff who work in his or her office.
CREATE VIEW Manager3Staff AS SELECT *
FROM Staff
WHERE branchNo = ‘B003’;

Supervisor

Example 7.4 – Create Vertical View
Create view of staff details at branch B003 excluding salaries.
CREATE VIEW Staff3
AS SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position, sex
FROM Staff
WHERE branchNo = ‘B003’;

Supervisor

Example 7.5 – Grouped and Joined Views
Create view of staff who manage properties for rent, including branch number they work at, staff number, and number of properties they manage.
CREATE VIEW StaffPropCnt (branchNo, staffNo, cnt) AS SELECT s.branchNo, s.staffNo, COUNT(*)
FROM Staff s, PropertyForRent p WHERE s.staffNo = p.staffNo GROUP BY s.branchNo, s.staffNo;
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Example 7.3 – Grouped and Joined Views
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SQL – DROP VIEW (1 of 2)
DROP VIEW ViewName [RESTRICT | CASCADE]
• Causes definition of view to be deleted from database. • For example:
DROP VIEW Manager3Staff;
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SQL – DROP VIEW (2 of 2)
• With CASCADE, all related dependent objects are
deleted; i.e. any views defined on view being dropped.
• With RESTRICT (default), if any other objects depend for their existence on continued existence of view being dropped, command is rejected.
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View Resolution (1 of 4)
Count number of properties managed by each member at
branch B003.
SELECT staffNo, cnt FROM StaffPropCnt WHERE branchNo = ‘B003’ ORDER BY staffNo;
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View Resolution (2 of 4)
(a) View column names in SELECT list are translated into
their corresponding column names in the defining query: SELECT s.staffNo As staffNo, COUNT(*) As cnt
(b) View names in FROM are replaced with corresponding FROM lists of defining query:
FROM Staff s, PropertyForRent p
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View Resolution (3 of 4)
(c) WHERE from user query is combined with WHERE of
defining query using AND:
WHERE s.staffNo = p.staffNo AND branchNo = ‘B003’
(d) GROUP BY and HAVING clauses copied from defining query:
GROUP BY s.branchNo, s.staffNo
(e) ORDER BY copied from query with view column name translated into defining query column name
ORDER BY s.staffNo
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View Resolution (4 of 4)
(f) Final merged query is now executed to produce the
SELECT s.staffNo AS staffNo, COUNT(*) AS cnt FROM Staff s, PropertyForRent p
WHERE s.staffNo = p.staffNo AND
branchNo = ‘B003’ GROUP BY s.branchNo, s.staffNo
ORDER BY s.staffNo;
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Restrictions on Views (1 of 3)
SQL imposes several restrictions on creation and use of
(a) If column in view is based on an aggregate function:
– Column may appear only in SELECT and ORDER BY clauses of queries that access view.
– Column may not be used in WHERE nor be an argument to an aggregate function in any query based on view.
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Restrictions on Views (2 of 3)
• For example, following query would fail:
SELECT COUNT(cnt) FROM StaffPropCnt;
• Similarly, following query would also fail:
FROM StaffPropCnt WHERE cnt > 2;
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Restrictions on Views (3 of 3)
(b) Grouped view may never be joined with a base table or
• For example, StaffPropCnt view is a grouped view, so any attempt to join this view with another table or view fails.
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View Updatability (1 of 5)
• All updates to base table reflected in all views that
encompass base table.
• Similarly, may expect that if view is updated then base table(s) will reflect change.
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View Updatability (2 of 5)
• However, consider again view StaffPropCnt.
• If we tried to insert record showing that at branch B003, S G5 manages 2 properties:
INSERT INTO StaffPropCnt VALUES (‘B003’, ‘SG5’, 2);
• Have to insert 2 records into PropertyForRent showing which properties SG5 manages. However, do not know which properties they are; i.e. do not know primary keys!
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View Updatability (3 of 5)
• If change definition of view and replace count with actual
property numbers:
CREATE VIEW StaffPropList (branchNo, staffNo, propertyNo)
AS SELECT s.branchNo, s.staffNo, p.propertyNo FROM Staff s, PropertyForRent p
WHERE s.staffNo = p.staffNo;
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View Updatability (4 of 5)
• Now try to insert the record:
INSERT INTO StaffPropList VALUES (‘B003’, ‘SG5’, ‘PG19’);
• Still problem, because in PropertyForRent all columns except postcode/staffNo are not allowed nulls.
• However, have no way of giving remaining non-null columns values.
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View Updatability (5 of 5)
• ISO specifies that a view is updatable if and only if:
– DISTINCT is not specified.
– Every element in SELECT list of defining query is a column name and no column appears more than once.
– FROM clause specifies only one table, excluding any views based on a join, union, intersection or difference.
– No nested SELECT referencing outer table.
– No GROUP BY or HAVING clause.
– Also, every row added through view must not violate integrity constraints of base table.
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WITH CHECK OPTION (1 of 2)
• Rows exist in a view because they satisfy WHERE
condition of defining query.
• If a row changes and no longer satisfies condition, it disappears from the view.
• New rows appear within view when insert/update on view cause them to satisfy WHERE condition.
• Rows that enter or leave a view are called migrating rows.
• WITH CHECK OPTION prohibits a row migrating out of the view.
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WITH CHECK OPTION (2 of 2)
• LOCAL/CASCADED apply to view hierarchies.
• With LOCAL, any row insert/update on view and any view directly or indirectly defined on this view must not cause row to disappear from view unless row also disappears from derived view/table.
• With CASCADED (default), any row insert/ update on this view and on any view directly or indirectly defined on this view must not cause row to disappear from the view.
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Example 7.6 – WITH CHECK OPTION (1 of 4)
CREATE VIEW Manager3Staff AS SELECT *
FROM Staff
WHERE branchNo = ‘B003’ WITH CHECK OPTION;
• Cannot update branch number of row B003 to B002 as this would cause row to migrate from view.
• Also cannot insert a row into view with a branch number that does not equal B003.
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Example 7.6 – WITH CHECK OPTION (2 of 4) • Now consider the following:
CREATE VIEW LowSalary
AS SELECT * FROM Staff WHERE salary > 9000;
CREATE VIEW HighSalary
AS SELECT * FROM LowSalary
WHERE salary > 10000 WITH LOCAL CHECK OPTION;
CREATE VIEW Manager3Staff AS SELECT * FROM HighSalary
WHERE branchNo = ‘B003’;
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Example 7.6 – WITH CHECK OPTION (3 of 4)
UPDATE Manager3Staff SET salary = 9500 WHERE staffNo = ‘SG37’;
• This update would fail: although update would cause row to disappear from HighSalary, row would not disappear from LowSalary.
• However, if update tried to set salary to 8000, update would succeed as row would no longer be part of LowSalary.
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Example 7.6 – WITH CHECK OPTION (4 of 4)
• If HighSalary had specified WITH CASCADED CHECK OPTION, setting salary to 9500 or 8000 would be rejected because row would disappear from HighSalary.
• To prevent anomalies like this, each view should be created using WITH CASCADED CHECK OPTION.
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Advantages of Views
• Data ind

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