[SOLVED] 程序代写 LECTURE 01

LECTURE 01
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE CONTENT EXPECTATIONS OF THIS COURSE
A BRIEF HISTORY OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY BEING SUCCESSFUL IN THIS COURSE (AND BEYOND)
PSYB57: INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY | UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO, SCARBOROUGH | PROF. MICHAEL SOUZA

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Lecture objectives
 To describe some of the methods of inquiry preceding the Cognitivism (e.g., Behaviorism), with a particular focus on strengths/weaknesses;
 To articulate what the cognitive revolution was and where it came from, as well as a number of key events that aided in the advancement of cognitivism;
 To make a clear and compelling argument for why cognition is a crucially important area of scientific study;
 To describe the relationship between localization of function (LoF) and cognitive networks, and how neural network models interface here;
 To develop and support an argument about why neuroscience can help us as we approach inquiries from a cognitive psychology perspective;
 To identify and describe several possible methodological challenges with cognitive psychology, and to discuss what can be done to address them.

The big challenge with cognition
Stimulus/ Response/ input output
Picture: https://c1.staticflickr.com/9/8055/8376271918_0ca57957fa_b.jpg
Method of inquiry: Introspection (structuralism) Key limitations:
Difficult to verify
You aren’t always aware…
The end product, not the process!
Picture: https://i.ytimg.com/vi/oWoczdsPMpY/hqdefault.jpg

Method of inquiry: Freudian theory
The unconscious mind
Freudian slips Dreams
Personality theory
Id, superego, ego
Defense mechanisms (e.g., repression) Origins of psychiatric illnesses
Limitations:
Falsifiability
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Method of inquiry: Behaviorism
Stimulus/ input
Response/ output
We can observe the inputs to and outputs from the mind (behaviour)
Picture: http://charonamission.com/2011/07/14/overactive-brain/

Method of inquiry: Behaviorism
Psychology reframed as the science of behavior
The mind is unobservable and thus should not be a target of scientific inquiry
Importance of associative learning, forms of conditioning, accuracy and reaction times (RTs) as key dependent variables
Limitations:
Difficulty accounting for creativity, the learning of language, false memories…
Limiting only the observable = a bad idea
(1849-1936)
B.F. Skinner 1904-1990
Method of inquiry: Cognitivism
Stimulus/ input
Response/ output
We can observe the inputs to and outputs from the mind (behaviour)
We can make inferences about mental processes (cognitive)
Picture: http://charonamission.com/2011/07/14/overactive-brain/

Method of inquiry: Cognitivism
The “Cognitive Revolution” rejected the notion that only behavior should be
subject to study
Cognitive psychology as the scientific study of the processes and products of the human mind
Information processing perspective
Input (sensory)  Processes (computations)  Output (motor commands)
Method of inquiry: Cognitivism Artificial neural networks (1930s onward)
Models of cognitive computation (e.g., decision- making) inspired by biological neural networks
Advent of the digital computer
Metaphor for the mind
Brain : Hardware :: Mind : Software
Theory of computation
Solving arithmetic problems with algorithms
Computer simulations of cognitive processes Development of artificial intelligence (AI)
Culloch 1898-1969

Method of inquiry: Cognitivism
Developing complex models of cognition
How is information processed so quickly?
Serial and parallel processing
Parallel distributed processing (1986)
Clelland 1948 – present
1942 – 2011
Picture: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_network
Method of inquiry: Cognitivism Creating models of cognitive processing
Hidden layer reflects neurons that represent
mental representations or processes

Some basic but important features of cognition
Cognition is important
Cognitive resources are limited
Cognition (broadly speaking) is crucially important for functioning well in the world in all aspects Why are resources limited, and how can we maximize their use?
There are differences in cognitive functioning
Within-subject differences in cognitive functioning
Between-subject differences in cognitive functioning
Can we develop a better understanding of what drives these differences?
Cognitive functions can be weakened or strengthened
Cognitive abilities often change, for better or worse, with development or dysfunction
How do we develop the most efficient tools for sharpening these most-important abilities?
Method of inquiry: Cognitive Neuroscience
Stimulus/ Response/ input output
We can observe the inputs to and outputs from the mind (behaviour) We can make inferences about mental processes (cognitive)
We can localize the workings of the mind (neuroscience)
Picture: http://charonamission.com/2011/07/14/overactive-brain/

Galen (129-199) Brain hypothesis
Descartes (1596-1650) Rationalism
Mind and brain relationship
Dualism versus monism Importance of the pineal gland Reflexes, as an example
Picture: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Descartes-reflex.JPG
Where is the mind?
How is the brain organized? Two competing ideas
An “undifferentiated mass,” or localization of function (LoF)? Phrenology (Gall, 1758-1828)

Evolution of cognitive neuropsychology
The history of psychology and neuroscience is rich with knowledge sourced from studying patients with brain injury
(1902-1977)
A hierarchical view of brain organization
A focus on networks that give rise to cognition Distributed view of cognitive processes
First comprehensive volume of neuropsychology (“The Working Brain” – 1973)
(1824-1880)
A portion of the left frontal lobe
(named Broca’s area) DamageBroca’s aphasia Non-fluent output despite intact comprehension
Picture: http://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_2001/ling001/neurology.html http://mindbrain.ucdavis.edu/labs/Miller/courses/npb-165-neurobiology-of-speech-perception
(1848-1904)
A portion of the left temporal lobe
(named Wernicke’s area) DamageWernicke’s aphasia
Impaired comprehension despite fluent output
Localization of function: Language

Localization of function: Memory
Patient H.M. (1926-2008)
Chronic, debilitating epilepsy
Bilateral medial temporal lobe resection Profound anterograde amnesia despite
relatively intact long-term memory stores
Picture: http://stuff4educators.com/web_images/hmvsnormal.jpg https://cdn.psychologytoday.com/sites/default/files/styles/article-inline-half/public/blogs/77741/2012/01/85023-80936.jpg?itok=qwAtproL
From localization of function to networks
Picture: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_network

Cognitive psychology and neuroscience: an important coming together
Cognitive psychologists provide us with models to characterize stages of information processing, informed by behavioral analyses, educated inferences, computational modeling, and more.
Such models can then be evaluated using a variety of neuroscientific techniques to examine biological plausibility.
Picture: http://psychcentral.com/lib/2007/what-is-functional-magnetic-resonance-imaging-fmri/
Some important challenges in Cognitive Psychology (and other areas of Psychology as well)
Validity and reliability of findings
Careful consideration of ‘classic’ studies
Small sample sizes, WEIRD sampling, and the issue with generalizability
The power of open science
Western Educated Industrialized Rich Democratic
Picture: https://www.cos.io/products/osf

Some important challenges in Cognitive Psychology (and other areas of Psychology as well)
Cognitive ethology
Relationship between real world and lab Careful evaluation of key assumption
Proposed approach
• Carefully observe and describe behavior as it occurs in natural world
• Move into laboratory and simply relevant factors, wherever possible
• Test whether lab findings predict and explain real-world phenomena
Picture: https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/face-facts/201902/how-do-faces-shape-first-impressions
Lecture objectives
 To describe some of the methods of inquiry preceding the Cognitivism (e.g., Behaviorism), with a particular focus on strengths/weaknesses;
 To articulate what the cognitive revolution was and where it came from, as well as a number of key events that aided in the advancement of cognitivism;
 To make a clear and compelling argument for why cognition is a crucially important area of scientific study;
 To describe the relationship between localization of function (LoF) and cognitive networks, and how neural network models interface here;
 To develop and support an argument about why neuroscience can help us as we approach inquiries from a cognitive psychology perspective;
 To identify and describe several possible methodological challenges with cognitive psychology, and to discuss what can be done to address them.

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