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Computer Language
Chapter 2: Context
Free Languages
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In Chapter 1 we introduced two equivalent methods for describing a language: Finite Automata and Regular Expressions
In this chapter we do something analogous
We introduce context free grammars (CFGs)
We introduce push
We even have another pumping lemma (Yeah!)
down automata (PDA)
In my view the order is reversed from before since the PDA is introduced second
– PDAs recognize CFGs

Why Context Free Grammars
They were first used to study human languages
You may have even seen something like them before
They are definitely used for “real” computer languages (C, C++, etc.)
They define the language
A parser uses the grammar to parse the input Of course you can also parse English

Section 2.1
Free Grammars

◼ Here is an example grammar G1
Free Grammar
Each rule has a variable and arrow and a combination of
variables and terminal symbols
◼ We will capitalize symbols but not terminals
A special variable is the start variable
◼ Usuallyontheleft
Here the variables are A and B and the terminals are 0, 1, #
A grammar has substitution rules or productions
hand side of topmost rule

Using the Grammar
Use grammar to generate a language by replacing variables using rules in the grammar
Begin with the start variable (in this case “A”)
Give me some strings grammar G1 below generates?
One answer: 0#1, 00#11, 000#111, … The sequence of steps is the derivation For this example the derivation is:

Parse Trees
Instead of listing the derivation you can provide a parse tree, which is more visual. The parse tree for generating 000#111 is below.

The Language of Grammar G1
All strings generated by G1 form the language
We write it L(G1)
What is the language of G1?
L(G1) = {0
Can we generate L(G1) with a FA?
n We just showed something significant
No. We proved that the language 0
is not regular
regular languages
CFGs can generate non
But we have not yet shown they can generate all regular languages

An Example English Grammar
Page 101 of the text has a simplified English grammar
Follow the derivation for “a boy sees”
Can you do this without looking at the solution?
Having a good knowledge of English grammar would help

Formal Definition of a CFG
A CFG is a 4
, R, S) where
1. V is a finite set called the variables
2.  terminals
is a finite set, disjoint from V, called the
3. R is a finite set of rules, with each rule being a variable and a string of variables and terminals, and
V is the start variable

Grammar G3 = ({S}, {
}, R, S), where:
What does this generate:
If you view a as “(“ and b as “)” then you get all strings of properly nested parentheses
Note they consider ()() to be okay
Key property: at any point will have at least as many
a’s Ultimately number of a’s must equal number of b’s
Generate the derivation for

Parse tree determines order of operations not algebraic rules. Even if
nd parentheseswereomittedfromgrammar,the2 parsetreewouldadda+a
before multiplying by a
Example 2.4 Page 103 (2

Designing CFGs
Like designing FA, some creativity is required
Probably harder with CFGs since are more expressive than FA (we will show that soon)
Here are some guidelines
If the CFL is the union of simpler CFLs, design grammars for the simpler ones and then combine
G1 | G2 | G3 for every state qi
Assuming this really works, what did we just show?
For example, S
If the language is regular, then can design a CFG that mimics a DFA
Make a variable
, then add
is an accept state
Make R0 the start variable where q0 is the start state of the DFA
We showed that CFGs subsume regular languages

Designing CFGs continued
If you are asked to design a CFL with some property, establish that property at the start, and then generate all possible string that maintain the property
HW example: {w| w contains at least three 1s}
Start with a string with 3 1’s and then generate all possible strings keeping those 3 1’s
◼ S → R1R1R1R ◼ R → 0R|1R|ε
Generate something that represents

Designing CFGs continued
A final guideline:
Certain CFLs contain strings that are linked in the sense that a machine for recognizing this language would need to remember an unbounded amount of information about one substring to “verify” the other substring.
This is sometimes trivial with a CFG
Example: 0

Sometimes a grammar can generate the same string in multiple ways
If a grammar generates even a single string in multiple
ways then the grammar is
Example 2.4 from a few slides ago was ambiguous:
This generates the string different parse trees
EXPR |(EXPR) | a ×
EXPR + EXPR | EXPR
a ambiguously via 2

An English Example
Grammar G2 on page 101 ambiguously
the girl touches the boy with the flower
Using your extensive knowledge of English, what are the two meanings of this phrase

Definition of Ambiguity
A grammar generates a string ambiguously if there are two different parse trees
Two derivations may differ in the order that the rules are applied, but if they generate the same parse tree, it is not really ambiguous
Definitions:
leftmost derivation if at every step the
two or more different leftmost derivations.
A derivation is a
leftmost remaining variable is replaced
is derived
ambiguously in a CFG G if it has

Chomsky Normal Form
It is often convenient to convert a CFG into a simplified form
A CFG is in Chomsky normal form if every rule is of the form:
variable can also go to
Any CFL can be generated by a CFG in Chomsky normal form
Where a is any terminal and A, B, and C are any variables
– except B and C may not be the start variable. The start

Converting CFG to Chomsky Normal Form
Here are the steps:
S, where S was original start variable
rules. Remove A
add a new rule with A deleted.
and for each occurrence of A
If we have R
uAvAw, we get: uvAw | uAvw | uvw
Handle all unit rules
If we had A Replace rules A
B, then whenever a rule B
u exists, we add A with:
You will have a HW question like this
Prior to doing it, go over example 2.10 in the textbook (page 108)

Section 2.2

Similar to NFAs but have an extra component
The stack provides extra memory that is separate from the control
regular languages
Allows PDA to recognize non
Equivalent in power/expressiveness to a CFG
Some languages easily described by generators
others by recognizers
Nondeterministic PDA’s deterministic ones but NPDA = CFG
not equivalent to

Schematic of a FA
State control
The state control represents the states and transition function
Tape contains the input string
Arrow represents the input head and points to the next symbol to be read

Schematic of a PDA
State control
The PDA adds a stack
Can write to the stack and read them back later
Write to the top (push) and rest “push down” or
Can remove from the top (pop) and other symbols move up
A stack is a LIFO (Last In First Out) and size is
not bounded

PDA and Language 0
Can a PDA recognize this?
Yes, because size of stack is not bounded
Describe the PDA that recognizes this language
Read symbols from input. Push each 0 onto the stack.
As soon as a 1’s are seen, starting popping one 0 for each 1
If finish reading the input and have no 0’s on stack, then accept the input string
If stack is empty and 1s remain or if stack becomes empty and still 1’s in string, reject
If at any time see a 0 after seeing a 1, then reject

Formal Definition of a PDA
The formal definition of a PDA is similar to that ofa FA but now we have a stack
Stack alphabet may be different from input alphabet
Stack alphabet represented by
Transition function key part of definition
The current state, next input symbol and top stack symbol determine the next move
Domain of transition function is Q

Definition of PDA
, and F are finite sets
A pushdown automata is a 6
, F), where Q,
1. Q is the set of states
is the input alphabet is the stack alphabet
Q is the start state, and
Q is the set of accept states
) is transition function
◼ NotethatatanystepthePDAmayenteranewstate and possibly write a symbol on top of the stack
◼ This definition allows nondeterminism since a set
can return

How Does a PDA Compute?
◼ The following 3 conditions must be satisfied for a string to be accepted:
1. M must start in the start state with an empty stack
2. M must move according to the transition function
3. At the end of the input, M must be in an accept state
To make it easy to test for an empty stack, a $ is initially pushed onto the stack
◼ If you see a $ at the top of the stack, you know it is empty

We write a,b
c to mean:
when the machine is reading an a from the input
it may replace the b on the top of the stack with c
Any of a, b, or c can be
If b is If c is
input symbol
then can make stack change without reading an
then no need to pop a symbol (just push c) then no new symbol is written (just pop b)

Example 1: a PDA for 0
Formally describe PDA that accepts {0
Let M1 be (Q,
, F), where

Example 2: PDA for
Come up with a PDA that recognizes the
language {a
| i, j, k ≥0 and i=j or i=k}
Come up with an informal description, as we did
Can you do it without using non
No With non
initially for 0
determinism?
Easy, similar to 0
Since NPDA ≠ PDA, create a PDA if possible
determinism?
b’s or c’s. See Figure 2.17 page 114
except that guess whether to match a’s with

Example 2: PDA for a
, i=j or i=k

Example 3: PDA for {ww
Come up with a PDA for the following
language: {ww
Can you informally describe the PDA? Can you come up with a deterministic one?
is the reverse of w so this is the language of palindromes
R Recall that w
Can you come up with a non
Yes, push symbols that are read onto the stack and at some point nondeterministically guess that you are in the middle of the string and then pop off stack value as they match the input (if no match, then reject)
deterministic one?

Diagram of PDA for {ww
0, ε → 0 1, ε → 1
0, 0 → ε 1, 1 → ε

Equivalence with CFGs
Theorem: A language is context free if and only if some pushdown automaton recognizes it
Lemma: if a language L is context free then some PDA recognizes it (we won’t bother doing other direction)
Proof idea: We show how to take a CFG that generates L and convert it into an equivalent PDA P
Thus P accepts a string only if the CFG can derive it
Each main step of the PDA involves an application of one rule in the CFG
The stack contains the intermediate strings generated by the CFG
Since the CFG may have a choice of rules to apply, the PDA must use its non determinism
One issue: since the PDA can only access the top of the stack, any terminal symbols pushed onto the top of the stack must be checked against the input string immediately.
If the terminal symbol matches the next input character, then advance input string If the terminal symbol does not match, then terminate that path

Informal Description of P
Place marker symbol $ and the start variable on the stack Repeat forever
If the top of the stack is a variable A, nondeterministically select one of the rules for A and substitute A by the string on
If the top of stack is a terminal symbol a, read the next symbol from the input and compare it to a. If they match, repeat. If they do not match, reject this branch.
If the top of stack is the symbol $, enter the accept state. Doing so accepts the input if it has all been read.
hand side of the rule

Example 2.25: construct a PDA P1 from a CFG G

Note that the top path in
Note the path below that replaces T with Ta
It replaces T with a then pops T on top of that Your task:
Show how this PDA accepts the string following derivation:
branches to the right and
It first pushes b, then T, then a (a is then at top of stack)
replaces S with
, which has the

Example continued
In the following, the left is the top of stack
We start with S$
We take the top branch to the right and we get the following as we go thru each state:
to pop it to get Tb$
We read a and use rule a,a
We next take the 2
branch going to right:
We next use rule
Then we pop a then pop b at which point we have $ Everything read so accept
to pop T to get ab$

Relationship of Regular Languages & CFLs
We know that CFGs define CFLs
We now know that a PDA recognizes the same class of languages and hence recognizes CFLs
We know that every PDA is a FA that just ignores the stack
Thus PDAs recognize regular languages
Thus the class of CFLs contains regular languages But since we know that a FA is not as powerful as a
CFLs and regular languages are not equivalent
PDA (e.g., 0
) we can say more

Relationship between CFLs and Regular Languages
Context Free Languages
Regular languages

Section 2.3
Context Free Languages

Non Context Free Languages
Just like there are languages that are not regular, there are languages that are not context free
This means that they cannot be generated by a CFG This means that they cannot be generated by a PDA
Just your luck! There is also a pumping lemma to prove that a language is not context free!

Pumping Lemma for CFGs
with length ≥ p, then s may be divided into five pieces x = uvxyz satisfying 3 conditions:
free language then there is a
If A is a context
pumping length p where, if s is any string in A
1. For each i ≥0, uv
2. |vy| > 0, and
3. |vxy| ≤ p

Proof Idea
For regular languages we applied the pigeonhole principle to the number of states to show that a state had to be repeated.
Here we apply the same principle to the number of variables in the CFG to show that some variable will need to be repeated given a sufficiently long string
We will call this variable R and assume it can derive X
I don’t find the diagram on the next slide as obvious as the various texts suggest. However, if you first put the CFG into a specific form, then it is a bit clearer.
Mainly just be sure you can apply the pumping lemma

Proof Idea Continued
Since we can keep applying rule R
which therefore must also belong to the languages
vRy, we can derive

Select the string s = a
B and |s| > p
Use the pumping lemma to show that the language B = {a | n ≥ 0} (Ex 2.36)
What string should we pick?
Condition 2 says that v and y cannot both be empty
Using the books reasoning we can break things into two cases (note that |vxy| ≤ p). What should they be or how would you proceed?
v and y each only contain one type of symbol (one symbol is left out)
Either v or y contains more than one type of symbol
z cannot contain equal number of a’s, b’s and c’s Pumping will violate the separation of a’s, b’s and c’s
We used this reasoning before for regular languages Using my reasoning
Since |vxy| ≤ p v and y contain at most 2 symbols and hence at least one is left out when pump up (technically we should say at least one symbols is in v or y so that pumping break the equality)

Example II
A possible choice is to choose s = {0
Let D = {ww | w
{0,1}*} (Ex 2.38) What string should we pick?
try generating uvxyz so it can be pumped
But this can be pumped
Hint: we need to straddle the middle for this to work
Choose s = {0
D? Does uwz
p Check it. Does uv
Solution: u=0
, v=0, x=1, y=0, z=0
First note that vxy must straddle midpoint. Otherwise pumping makes 1st half ≠ 2nd half
Book says another way: if vxy on left, pumping it moves a 1 into second half and if on right, moves 0 into first half
since |vxy| < p, it is all 1’s in left case and all 0’s in right caseIf does straddle midpoint, if pump down, then not of form ww since neither 1’s or 0’s match in each halfSummary of Pumping Lemma for CFGsJust remember the basics and the conditionsYou should memorize them for both pumping lemmas, but think about what they meanI may give you the pumping lemma definitions on the exam, but perhaps not. You should remember both pumping lemmas and the conditionsThey should not be too hard to remember程序代写 CS代考加微信: assignmentchef QQ: 1823890830 Email: [email protected]